Two Regions United

Ancient Egypt had two distinct regions, Upper Egypt in the south and Lower Egypt in the north. Upper Egypt stretched from the Nile's first cataract, or waterfall, of the Nile northward to within 100 miles of the Mediterranean Sea. Lower Egypt covered the delta region where the Nile empties into the Mediterranean. A delta is a triangular area of marshland formed by deposits of silt at the mouth of some rivers.

About 3100 B.C., Menes, the king of Upper Egypt, united the two regions and set up his capital at Memphis near the Nile delta. Menes and his successors used the Nile as a highway linking north and south. They could send officials or armies to towns along the river. The Nile thus helped make Egypt one of the world's first unified states.

The river also served as a trade route. Egyptian merchants traveled up and down the Nile in sailboats and barges, exchanging the products of Africa, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean world.

The Old Kingdom

Scholars divide the history of ancient Egypt into three main periods: the Old Kingdom (about 2575 B.C.–2130 B.C.), the Middle Kingdom (about 1938 B.C.–1630 B.C.), and the New Kingdom (about 1539 B.C.–1075 B.C.). During these periods, power passed from one dynasty, or ruling family, to another, but Egypt generally remained united.

A Structured Government

During the Old Kingdom, Egyptian rulers, later called pharaohs (FEHR ohz), organized a strong, centralized state. Pharaohs claimed divine support for their rule. Egyptians believed the pharaoh was a god. The pharaoh thus had absolute power, owning and ruling all the land. Still, the pharaoh was also seen as human and was expected to behave morally.

Pharaohs of the Old Kingdom took pride in maintaining justice and order. A pharaoh depended on a vizier (vih ZEER), or chief minister, to supervise the government. The vizier headed the bureaucracy, or government departments, that looked after matters such as tax collection, farming, and the all-important irrigation system. Thousands of scribes carried out the vizier's instructions.

Analyze Maps

The Nile extends another 3,600 miles south of its first cataract. What geographic features might have limited the expansion of civilization beyond the Nile Valley?

About 2450 B.C., a wise vizier, Ptah-hotep (ptah HOH tep), took an interest in training young officials.

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